Week 10 · Chapter

Chapter 10 — Presentation Aids / Visual Support

Public Speaking Free sample edition

The module's primary reading · ~40–50 minutes · Objective 6 (design presentation aids that serve the audience — one idea per slide, the right graph for the data, high contrast, minimal text — and integrate them with the reveal-reference-return sequence and a backup plan, without reading from the screen), Objective 2 (listen actively and critically, distinguishing hearing from listening and matching the type of listening to the situation, and analyze an audience through demographic, psychographic, and situational lenses to adapt a message's content, examples, language, and level to that audience and occasion without stereotyping) · Read it first this week; the lecture, the slide deck, the tutorial, the quiz, and the Speech Workshop all build on it.

In plain language

This week you add something for the audience to look at, and you make sure it helps. A presentation aid (anything beyond your voice and body that helps listeners understand, remember, or stay engaged) can be a slide, a graph, an object, a map, or you showing a move. A good aid carries one idea per slide (one point the eye can take in at a glance), so the audience looks, gets it, and turns back to you. You learn to pick the right graph for your data, to build a clean slide, and to show it at the right moment and then take it away. You also learn what to do when the screen goes dark.

Why you already care about this

A lab group of 4 presents its project to a class of 30. One member turns to the screen and reads a slide with 6 full sentences on it, word for word. By the third sentence, most of the room has read to the bottom and stopped listening. A few people check their phones. The scene is illustrative and attributed to no one, but you have sat in that room.

The slide was not wrong. Every sentence on it was true. The problem was that the slide said everything, so the audience read instead of listening, and the speaker had nothing left to add. The aid replaced the speaker.

Now picture a second version. The same member shows one picture with a short headline, says one sentence about it, and turns back to the room. The class looks, gets it, and looks back. The picture helped, and the speaker kept the room. That is the whole week in one moment.

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

define a presentation aid and name its four functions: clarity, retention, interest, and credibility;
name the types of aids, and match a graph to its data: pie for parts of a whole, line for change over time, bar for comparison across categories;
count a crowded slide against the six-by-six heuristic and redesign it around one idea;
integrate an aid with reveal, reference, return, avoid reading the slides, and keep a backup plan;
check a chatbot's slide by hand for crowding, the wrong graph, an unsourced statistic, and hollow praise.

Carry this line with you: the aid supports the speaker — it never replaces the speaker.

Where we are

Already covered: Weeks 1 to 8 built the message, from the audience to the oral citation to the outline and the words. Week 9 put the speech into your voice and body, with extemporaneous delivery from brief notes as the target.
This week: what a presentation aid is for, the types of aids and the right graph for the data, the design principles, reveal, reference, return, the backup plan, and a chatbot's slide.
How they connect: an aid is part of delivery. Week 9 taught you to keep your eyes on the room, and this week's aid has to fit inside that habit instead of pulling you toward the screen.
Where we're going next: Week 11 builds the informative speech, the term's first headline speech, and the running speech carries this week's two aids into it.

Here is what each week gave you. Week 1 drew communication as a transactional loop: you send, the audience sends feedback back, all at once. A speaker reading a slide breaks that loop, because the speaker stops watching for feedback. Week 2 taught you to read an audience through three lenses, and this week the situational lens decides what the back row can see. Week 4 taught you the oral citation, and this week it moves off the slide and back into your voice. Week 6 gave you a speaking outline of five cards, and this week one card gets a cue for an aid. Week 9 taught you to glance at a card and look back up, and the same move works for a screen.

1. What an aid is for: the four functions

Think about a friend giving you directions to a new apartment. They can say "turn left after the second light, then it's the building with the green door." Or they can hold up their phone and show you the map for three seconds while they talk. The map did not replace the directions. It made them easier to follow and easier to remember.

That is what a presentation aid does, and the course defines it this way.

A presentation aid is anything beyond a speaker's voice and body, such as a slide, an object, a graph, or a handout, that helps the audience understand, remember, or stay engaged with the message.

The definition starts with the audience. An aid exists to do a job for the listeners, not to decorate the speech or to prove the speaker worked hard. This course names the four functions an aid can do:

Clarity. The aid makes an idea easier to understand. A diagram of how a heart valve opens can do in one picture what three sentences struggle to do.
Retention. The aid helps the idea stick. People often remember a picture after they forget the sentence around it.
Interest. The aid keeps attention. A real object passed into view can wake up a room after five minutes of talk.
Credibility. The aid shows the speaker prepared and the evidence is real. A clean graph with its source on it says "I checked."

Worked example — the four-function test. Use the four functions as a filter, one aid at a time. The running speech, which is illustrative and attributed to no one, plans a title slide and one bar graph. Ask of each: which of the 4 functions does it serve for this audience?

The title slide, "Where does the plate go?", serves interest. It opens the speech with a question the audience can see while the speaker asks it.
The bar graph serves clarity and retention. It shows three serving styles side by side, so listeners can compare them at a glance and remember the comparison.

An aid that serves none of the 4 functions is cut. In words: an aid earns its place by doing a job for the listeners, and "it looks nice" is not one of the jobs.

The audience decides what works

Week 2's situational lens comes back here, because an aid has to work in a real room. Size matters: a phone photo works for 5 people around a table and fails for 60 people in a hall. Setting matters too: a pale slide washes out in a bright room. So does the equipment. Before you design anything, ask what the back row will be able to see, and whether there will be a screen at all.

A charge nurse giving a shift-change briefing at a hospital is a good model. The illustrative scene is attributed to no one. The nurse has 4 colleagues standing at a counter, no screen, and two minutes. A slide would be useless there. One printed diagram of the unit, held up and pointed to, does the job. The aid fit the room.

A word about circulating percentages

You may meet a percentage online claiming how much more people remember when they see a visual. Honesty note: this course teaches that idea in words and keys no number. Visuals can help memory, which is why retention is one of the four functions. But a confident percentage with no study behind it is the kind of claim Week 4 taught you to question. Ask who counted, when, and how many, and if no one can answer, do not say the number aloud.

Misconception check. Students often think more slides show more effort. That is tempting, because a long deck looks like hard work. But the audience does not grade effort; it needs help understanding and remembering. Every extra slide is one more thing pulling eyes away from you. The cure is the four-function test: keep an aid only if it does a job for these listeners, and cut the rest.

Pause and reflect. Choose one option and jot two or three sentences.

(a) Think of a talk or class where a slide or object helped you understand something. Which of the four functions did it serve, and how could you tell?

(b) Think of a talk where the slides got in the way. What did the speaker do with them, and which function was missing?

Memory hook: if it does no job, it does not go on screen.

2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data

Aids come in many forms, and the best one depends on the idea. A cooking demonstration uses the pan. A talk about a neighborhood traffic plan uses a map. A talk about a budget uses a graph. Choosing the type is the first design decision.

This course names these types:

Objects and models: the real thing, or a scale copy of it, such as a bike helmet or a model of a molecule.
Photographs: a real scene the audience could not otherwise see.
Graphs: pictures of numerical data.
Diagrams: drawings of how something works.
Maps: pictures of where things are.
Video and audio clips: short recordings, kept brief so they do not take over the speech.
Handouts: printed pages the audience keeps.
The speaker as demonstration: your own body or actions as the aid.

Here are the course's definitions for the types you will use most.

A graph is a picture of numerical data that lets an audience see a relationship at a glance; the speaker chooses its type by the question the data answer.
A diagram is a drawing that shows how something works or how its parts fit together, such as the steps of a process or the inside of a machine.
A map is an aid that shows where things are, such as a route, a neighborhood, or the layout of a building.
A handout is a printed page given to each listener to keep or to follow along with, such as a map, a checklist, or a list of sources.
A demonstration is the use of the speaker's own body or actions as the aid, such as showing a stretch, a knot, or a first-aid hold while explaining it.

Match the graph to the data

Graphs cause the most trouble, because the wrong type can make true data look confusing or even misleading. The fix is to ask what question the data answer. Three graph types cover most speeches.

A pie graph is a circle divided into slices that shows how the parts of one whole compare with each other and add up to that whole.
A line graph connects values across a sequence of times, so the audience can see a rise, a fall, or a steady stretch over time.
A bar graph sets separate bars side by side so an audience can compare amounts across distinct categories, such as departments or serving styles.

So the short rule is pie for parts of a whole, line for change over time, and bar for comparison across categories.

Worked example — three data sets, three graphs. The three data sets are illustrative and attributed to no one. For each one, ask the question the data answer, then pick the graph.

A college budget's shares. The data are the slices of one year's spending that add up to the whole budget. The question is "how is one whole divided?" That is parts of a whole, so the data go on a pie graph.
A recycling rate over 5 years. The data are one rate, measured once a year. The question is "how did it change over time?" That is change over time, so the data go on a line graph.
Enrollments in 5 departments. The data are separate amounts for separate departments. The question is "which is larger, and by how much?" That is comparison across categories, so the data go on a bar graph.

Three data sets → 3 graph types, each chosen by the question the data answer. In words: you pick the graph by what the data are about, not by which graph looks best.

Now test the rule from the other side. Put the recycling rate on a pie, and you get 5 slices that do not add up to any whole, because each year's rate is its own measurement. Put the 5 departments on a line, and the line suggests that one department flows into the next, as if they were moments in time. Each wrong choice tells the audience a story the data do not hold.

Misconception check. Students often reach for a pie graph for trend data, or a line graph for categories. That is tempting, because both graphs look tidy and the software offers them side by side. But a pie only works when the slices add up to one whole, and a line only works when the values sit in time order. The cure is to ask the data's question first: parts of a whole is pie, change over time is line, comparison across categories is bar.

Memory hook: pick the graph by the data's question — not by its looks.

3. Design for one idea: the principles and the six-by-six heuristic

Think about a road sign. It has a few words, big letters, strong colors, and one message: stop, merge, exit. A driver reads it in a second at highway speed. A slide should work the same way, because your audience reads it while also listening to you.

The course gathers this into six design principles: one idea per slide, large readable type, high contrast, minimal text, consistent style, and quality images.

One idea per slide. Each slide carries one point. If you need two points, you need two slides, or one slide and one sentence.
Large readable type. The back row must be able to read every word without squinting.
High contrast. High contrast means a large difference between the color of text or lines and the color behind them, such as dark text on a pale background, so the slide stays readable from the back row and in a bright room. Pale gray on white fails this test.
Minimal text. Words on a slide are cues, not sentences. You say the sentences.
Consistent style. The same fonts, colors, and layout on every slide, so the audience reads the content instead of the decoration.
Quality images. A sharp, relevant picture, never a blurry or stretched one, and never clip art that adds nothing.

Why one idea: working memory

The reason behind one idea per slide is working memory: the small mental workspace a listener uses to hold and handle information in the moment. It fills up fast. Your listener is already holding your last sentence and waiting for your next one. A slide with five ideas asks them to read, sort, and remember all five while still listening, and something drops. Honesty note: this course names the idea in words and gives no number for how much working memory holds; the point is that it is small, so give it one idea at a time.

The six-by-six heuristic

The six-by-six heuristic is a rule of thumb for slide text: at most six lines, with at most six words a line. It is a guide for keeping text short, not a law. Some good slides have a seven-word headline. But when a slide blows far past the guide, you have a document on screen, not an aid.

Worked example — counting and redesigning a crowded slide. The slide below is an illustrative first draft for the running speech's main point II, attributed to no one. The speaker built it by pasting in the main point, its two subpoints, and the whole of oral citation 2, in small gray type.

The headline: "Plate waste is targeted by changing how food is served" (10 words).
Subpoint A: "Trayless serving cuts how much food diners take." (8 words).
Subpoint B: "Portion-controlled serving lowers plate waste further." (6 words).
The pasted citation, all of it (50 words): "In a study published in the journal Sustainability in December 2022, researchers Wenhao Zhang and Junehee Kwon found that a week without trays in a university dining hall, compared with a week with trays, reduced how much food diners took but did not show a significant reduction in food waste."

Now count it, step by step.

Find the six-by-six ceiling. At most 6 lines × at most 6 words a line = 36 words on a slide, as a rule of thumb.
Count the slide. 10 + 8 + 6 + 50 = 74 words.
Compare. 74 − 36 = 38 words over the six-by-six rule of thumb.

The pasted citation is the worst line. A speaker who puts a 50-word paragraph on screen ends up reading it aloud, with their back to the room.

Now redesign it around one idea. The idea of point II, for this audience, is "serving style changes how much comes back." So the redesigned slide is the running speech's bar graph, and nothing else:

The headline: "Plate waste by serving style" (5 words).
Three bars, labelled "Tray", "Trayless", and "Portion-controlled" (3 words).
A small tag reading "Illustrative" (1 word), because the bar heights are illustrative and assert no real figure.

Count the redesign. 5 + 3 + 1 = 9 words.
Measure the change. 74 − 9 = 65 fewer words on screen.

And the citation did not vanish. It moved from the slide to the speaker's mouth, said aloud with its who, what, and when, while the audience looks at the bars. In words: the redesign cut 65 words from the screen by keeping one idea there and putting the evidence into the speaker's voice.

Misconception check. Students often think a detailed slide proves they prepared. That is tempting, because a full slide feels like evidence of work, and it doubles as notes. But the audience reads it faster than you can say it, and then it stops listening. A clean slide proves more: it shows you know which one idea matters. Your notes belong on your speaking outline, not on the screen.

Pause and reflect. Choose one option and jot two or three sentences.

(a) Find one slide from a presentation you have given or seen. Count its words against the six-by-six ceiling, and name the one idea it should carry.

(b) Picture the room where you will give your next speech. Which design principle matters most in that room, and why?

Memory hook: one idea, big type, few words.

4. Reveal, reference, return: put the aid into the speech

A good aid can still fail if you show it at the wrong time. Picture a teammate at a neighborhood meeting who puts up a map of a proposed crosswalk before saying a word, then leaves it up for twenty minutes. The scene is illustrative and attributed to no one. The audience studies the map, guesses at it, and argues about it while the speaker is still on the introduction. The map was fine. The timing was not.

The course's sequence for using an aid is reveal, reference, return: show it when the speech reaches the idea it supports, point the audience to what matters in it, then remove it and turn attention back to the speaker.

Reveal it when you reach its idea, not before. Until then, the screen stays blank or on the title.
Reference it in one sentence that tells the audience where to look.
Return: take it away, by blanking the screen or moving on, and turn back to the room.

The number-one misuse: reading the slides

Reading the slides is the most common misuse of an aid: the speaker faces the screen and reads its text aloud, so the audience reads ahead and the speaker stops watching for feedback. Week 1's transactional loop breaks. You cannot see a confused face while you are facing the screen. Reading the slides is not delivery. It turns the speaker into a narrator for a document the audience has already read.

The backup plan

Equipment fails. The projector will not connect, the file will not open, the bulb dies. A backup plan is a speaker's prepared way to carry on if an aid fails, such as describing the graph aloud in one sentence from the speaking outline, so the speech still works without the screen. If your speech cannot survive a dark screen, the aid has become the speech.

Worked example — the running speech's two aids, placed. The speech and its slides are illustrative and attributed to no one.

Count the aids. A title slide is the opening slide that names the speech's topic in a few words, often as a question or a short phrase, and stays plain so it does not compete with the speaker. The running speech's title slide reads "Where does the plate go?" (5 words) and shows during the introduction. The bar graph shows only under main point II. That is 1 title slide + 1 bar graph = 2 aids for a five-minute speech.
Reveal. After the transition into point II, not before, the speaker brings up the bar graph.
Reference. One sentence: "Each bar is one serving style our dining hall could choose: tray, trayless, or portion-controlled."
Return. The speaker blanks the screen and turns back to the room for oral citation 2. That is 3 steps, in that order.
Cue the card. Card 3 of the speaking outline, for main point II, now reads: "serving changes · trayless · AID: bar graph, reveal, reference, return · Zhang and Kwon, Sustainability, Dec 2022, no significant waste reduction".
Plan the backup. If the screen fails, the speaker says the reference aloud as a description ("Picture three bars, one for each serving style.") and carries on from the card. The speech works without the aid.

In words: the aid appears for one idea, gets one sentence, and leaves, and the speech never depends on it.

Misconception check. Students often think reading from slides counts as delivery, as long as they say every word. That is tempting, because the slide feels like a safety net. But a speaker reading the screen has turned away from the audience, and Week 1's transactional loop breaks. The cure is to keep the screen for one idea at a time and the words on your card, then look at people. A second wrong turn is skipping the backup plan, so a dead projector ends the speech.

Memory hook: show it, point to it, put it away.

5. Check the machine: a chatbot's slide

You will use a chatbot as a rehearsal coach this term, so see how it handles slides. Ask one for a slide, and it tends to fill the space, pick a graph that looks good, and praise the result. Each of those habits works against your listeners.

Worked example — checking a chatbot's slide by hand. The exchange is illustrative and names no product. You ask a chatbot to make a slide for main point I of the running speech, on how plate waste is measured. It returns a slide with:

7 bullet lines of text;
a pie graph of plate waste in each week of the term;
the line "30–40% of all food is wasted!" with no source on it;
the comment "This slide looks professional and engaging!"

Check it, one problem at a time.

Crowding. 7 − 6 = 1 line over the six-line rule of thumb, so the slide is crowded. Fix: keep one idea, the scale at the return window, and move the rest to your card.
The graph. Weekly plate waste is change over time. A pie needs parts of one whole, so the pie becomes a line graph.
The statistic. "30–40% of all food is wasted!" names no one. Trace it, and it matches the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Waste FAQ page, which says the range applies to the food supply in the United States. So restore the source's own wording and say oral citation 1 aloud when the fixed slide appears: "According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Waste FAQ page, which draws on the department's Economic Research Service, between 30 and 40 percent of the food supply in the United States goes to waste." If you cannot trace a statistic to a real source, drop it.
The praise. "Professional" names no listener need. It does not say which function the slide serves or what the back row will see, so the praise is hollow.
Count the problems. 1 crowded slide + 1 wrong graph + 1 unsourced statistic + 1 hollow praise = 4 problems caught.

In words: the chatbot made a slide that looked finished, and four quick checks found what it did not mention.

Misconception check. Students often think a chatbot's slide is ready because it looks polished. That is tempting, because the colors match and the layout is neat. But "professional-looking" is not one of the four functions, and a chatbot cannot see your room or check its own numbers. Run the design principles, the graph match, and the source check on every chatbot slide, and fix each problem by hand.

Memory hook: the chatbot drafts the slide; you check every line.

Key terms

Presentation aid — Anything beyond a speaker's voice and body, such as a slide, an object, a graph, or a handout, that helps the audience understand, remember, or stay engaged with the message. (first used: 1. What an aid is for: the four functions)
Four functions — The four jobs this course says a presentation aid can do for an audience: clarity (making an idea easier to understand), retention (helping it stick), interest (holding attention), and credibility (showing preparation and real evidence). (first used: 1. What an aid is for: the four functions)
Graph — A picture of numerical data that lets an audience see a relationship at a glance; the speaker chooses its type by the question the data answer. (first used: 2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data)
Diagram — A drawing that shows how something works or how its parts fit together, such as the steps of a process or the inside of a machine. (first used: 2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data)
Map — An aid that shows where things are, such as a route, a neighborhood, or the layout of a building. (first used: 2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data)
Handout — A printed page given to each listener to keep or to follow along with, such as a map, a checklist, or a list of sources. (first used: 2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data)
Demonstration — The use of the speaker's own body or actions as the aid, such as showing a stretch, a knot, or a first-aid hold while explaining it. (first used: 2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data)
Pie graph — A circle divided into slices that shows how the parts of one whole compare with each other and add up to that whole. (first used: 2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data)
Line graph — A graph that connects values across a sequence of times, so the audience can see a rise, a fall, or a steady stretch over time. (first used: 2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data)
Bar graph — A graph that sets separate bars side by side so an audience can compare amounts across distinct categories, such as departments or serving styles. (first used: 2. Types of aids, and the right graph for the data)
Design principles — The course's six guides for building a slide an audience can use: one idea per slide, large readable type, high contrast, minimal text, consistent style, and quality images. (first used: 3. Design for one idea: the principles and the six-by-six heuristic)
High contrast — A large difference between the color of text or lines and the color behind them, such as dark text on a pale background, so the slide stays readable from the back row and in a bright room. (first used: 3. Design for one idea: the principles and the six-by-six heuristic)
Working memory — The small mental workspace a listener uses to hold and handle information in the moment; because it fills up fast, a slide that carries one idea at a time is easier to follow while the speaker talks. (first used: 3. Design for one idea: the principles and the six-by-six heuristic)
Six-by-six heuristic — A rule of thumb for slide text of at most six lines, with at most six words a line; it is a guide for keeping text short, not a law. (first used: 3. Design for one idea: the principles and the six-by-six heuristic)
Reveal, reference, return — The three-step sequence for using an aid: show it when the speech reaches the idea it supports, point the audience to what matters in it, then remove it and turn attention back to the speaker. (first used: 4. Reveal, reference, return: put the aid into the speech)
Reading the slides — The most common misuse of an aid, in which the speaker faces the screen and reads its text aloud, so the audience reads ahead and the speaker stops watching for feedback. (first used: 4. Reveal, reference, return: put the aid into the speech)
Backup plan — A speaker's prepared way to carry on if an aid fails, such as describing the graph aloud in one sentence from the speaking outline, so the speech still works without the screen. (first used: 4. Reveal, reference, return: put the aid into the speech)
Title slide — The opening slide that names the speech's topic in a few words, often as a question or a short phrase, and stays plain so it does not compete with the speaker. (first used: 4. Reveal, reference, return: put the aid into the speech)

Summary

An aid supports the speaker; it never replaces the speaker.
The four functions: clarity, retention, interest, credibility.
An aid that does none of the four jobs is cut.
Check the room first: size, setting, light, and the screen.
Pie for parts of a whole, line for change over time, bar for comparison across categories.
Ask the data's question, then pick the graph.
The design principles: one idea per slide, large readable type, high contrast, minimal text, consistent style, quality images.
Working memory is small, so give it one idea at a time.
The six-by-six heuristic is a rule of thumb, not a law.
Reveal, reference, return: show it, point to it, put it away.
Reading the slides breaks the transactional loop.
Keep a backup plan; the speech must work with a dark screen.
A chatbot's slide is a draft; check crowding, the graph, the source, and the praise.

Check your understanding

Work these before looking at the answers — they are ungraded, and the answers (with reasoning) are at the bottom of the page.

A food-truck owner is giving a talk at a small-business meetup. Pick the graph for each data set and say why. (a) The share of one month's sales that came from each of 4 menu items. (b) The average wait for an order in each of the last 6 months. (c) The number of orders on each of 3 delivery apps.
A slide for a youth soccer team's fundraiser has 5 lines of 9, 7, 8, 6, and 10 words. Count it against the six-by-six ceiling, and say how many lines break the six-word guide.
At a community meeting, a speaker opens with a map of a new bus route on screen and leaves it up through the whole talk, then reads the route's stops off the map. Which steps of reveal, reference, return went wrong, and what is the fix?
A chatbot builds a slide for a first-aid workshop talk. It shows the number of trained volunteers in each of 4 years as a pie graph, and the chatbot calls the slide "visually stunning." Name both problems and fix them.

Answers (worked reasoning — read after attempting)

(a) A pie graph: the 4 menu items' shares are parts of one whole month of sales. (b) A line graph: the average wait across 6 months is change over time. (c) A bar graph: the 3 delivery apps are separate categories to compare. Each choice comes from the question the data answer, not from which graph looks nicest.
Add the lines: 9 + 7 + 8 + 6 + 10 = 40 words. The ceiling is 6 × 6 = 36 words, so the slide is 40 − 36 = 4 words over. The slide has 5 lines, which is within six, but 4 of them run past six words (the lines of 9, 7, 8, and 10). The fix is to cut each line to a short cue, or split the slide so each one carries one idea.
The reveal and the return went wrong, and the reference turned into reading. The map appeared before its idea, so the audience studied it instead of listening, and it never went away. Reading the stops off the map is reading the slides. The fix: keep the screen blank until the route comes up, show the map, point to the one stop that matters in one sentence, then take it down and talk to the room.
First, the wrong graph: trained volunteers across 4 years is change over time, so it belongs on a line graph, not a pie, whose slices must add up to one whole. Second, hollow praise: "visually stunning" names no listener need and no function. The fix is to redraw it as a line graph and judge it by the four functions, asking whether it makes the trend clearer and easier to remember.

Next up in this module: the Readings & Resources page, the lecture tutorial, the practice set, and the quiz; next week the informative speech, the term's first headline speech, puts the reveal, reference, return method to work.

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