Week 4 · Chapter

Chapter 4 — Language and Communication

Cultural Anthropology Free sample edition

The module's primary reading · ~25–35 minutes · Objective 3 (analyze language as a cultural system: distinguish language from communication, explain dialect, register, and code-switching, evaluate the strong and weak forms of linguistic relativity, and describe nonverbal communication and language endangerment) · Read it first this week; the lecture, the slides, the tutorial, and the quiz all build on it.

In plain language

People everywhere send each other messages, but humans also have language (a learned system of words and rules that lets us say things no one has said before). This week you will see what sets language apart from communication (any passing of information, which many animals do too). You will learn why there is no such thing as a "broken" dialect (a regional or social variety of a language), and why you change your register (your style of speaking for a setting) many times a day. You will weigh a famous debate about whether your language shapes your thinking, notice the messages people send without words, and learn why many of the world's languages are at risk. By the end, you will be able to listen to everyday talk the way an anthropologist does.

Why you already care about this

Picture a group chat with 8 members. One new member joins, reads 30 messages full of abbreviations and inside jokes, and has no idea what is going on. Every word is in a language the new member speaks, yet the chat is still a closed door. Within 7 days, the new member is using the same shorthand without thinking about it, and the abbreviations stop being a closed door.

You have lived that moment many times: on a new team, at a new job, in a new class. Anthropologists study it on purpose. Last week you met the vendors' own words at the course's market, words like "regulars" and "seconds". This week you will hear those words as language, and you will see how a single word can hold a whole shared world. The ideas come from Hockett (1960), "The Origin of Speech", Scientific American, and from Hall (1966), The Hidden Dimension, along with a long debate about language and thought.

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

tell language from communication, using five design features of language;
explain how the vendors' emic terms show those design features at work;
tell a dialect from a register, explain why every dialect follows rules, and recognize code-switching;
weigh the strong form of linguistic relativity against the weak form, with the evidence for each;
describe nonverbal communication and proxemics, and explain why gestures are not universal;
describe language change and endangerment, and say the count of the world's languages in words.

Carry this sentence with you: a word is a learned agreement, not a natural label.

Where we are

Already covered: Week 1 gave you the anthropological perspective, Week 2 defined culture as learned, shared, and symbolic, and Week 3 taught fieldwork, two-column field notes, and the emic and etic points of view.
This week: language as a cultural system: language versus communication, design features, dialect, register, code-switching, linguistic relativity, nonverbal communication, and language endangerment.
How they connect: Week 3 marked the four emic terms in the vendor's interview; this week asks how those words work as language and what they carry.
Where we're going next: Week 5, Making a Living, begins a new unit on how people feed themselves, with subsistence strategies as a model.

Week 2 called culture symbolic, meaning that people attach meaning to things by convention, the way the market's bell means "selling may begin". Language is the biggest symbolic system people have. Week 3 then gave you two points of view: emic, the insider's own categories and words, and etic, the outside analyst's categories. You also met the course's illustrative interview with an unnamed vendor who has sold at the market for 20 years. This week you return to that interview and listen to it as speech.

1. Tell language from communication

Your phone buzzes twice and you know a message arrived. A dog barking at the door tells the house that someone is outside. A friend's raised eyebrow across a room says "Did you hear that?" All three pass information along. None of them is language.

Here are the two terms, set side by side. Communication is any passing of information from one living thing to another, by sound, sight, touch, or smell; many animals communicate without using language. Language is a symbolic system of learned words and rules that lets people say and understand an unlimited number of new things, including things not present.

So language is one kind of communication, not another name for it. The difference lies in a set of features. Hockett (1960), "The Origin of Speech", Scientific American, called them design features: the features that set human language apart from other animal communication. This course teaches five of them.

Five of the design features of language named by Hockett (1960), each with a plain-language test
Design feature	What it means	A plain test
Arbitrariness	No natural link between a word and its meaning	Could a different sound mean the same thing?
Displacement	Talking about things not here and not now	Can the speaker discuss last year or next week?
Productivity	Making and understanding sentences never heard before	Can a listener follow a brand-new sentence?
Traditional transmission	Learned from other speakers, not inherited	Did the speaker pick it up by living among speakers?
Duality of patterning	Meaningless sounds combined into meaningful words	Do small sound pieces, meaningless alone, build words?

Here is each one in plain words.

Arbitrariness is the design feature by which there is no natural link between a word and its meaning, so the meaning is set by the convention of the people who use the word. Nothing about the sound of "apple" is red, round, or sweet.
Displacement is the design feature that lets speakers talk about things that are not here and not now, such as past years, distant places, or plans. You can describe a trip you took last year.
Productivity is the design feature that lets speakers make and understand sentences they have never heard before. You understood several brand-new sentences in this paragraph.
Traditional transmission, often called cultural transmission, is the design feature by which a language is learned from other speakers rather than inherited biologically. A baby raised among speakers of any language learns that language.
Duality of patterning is the design feature by which a small set of sounds that mean nothing on their own are combined into a very large number of meaningful words. The words "bell" and "sell" differ only in their first sound, and that one small change gives a new word.

Worked example — testing the group chat. Use the five features to test the opening scene's group chat (illustrative).

Arbitrariness. The chat's abbreviations mean what the members agreed they mean. A new member cannot guess them from the letters.
Displacement. Members plan a meetup for next month and joke about a trip from last summer. Neither is here and now.
Productivity. Each new message is a sentence nobody has typed before, and the others still follow it.
Traditional transmission. The new member learns the shorthand by reading and joining in, not by birth.
Duality of patterning. The chat's words are built from letters that stand for sounds, and the sounds mean nothing alone.

In words: the group chat passes all five tests, so it is language in use, while a phone's buzz passes none of them and is communication only.

Pause and think. Choose one option and answer it in two or three sentences:

(a) Think of a signal you use every day that is communication but not language, such as a car horn or a wave. Which of the five design features does it lack?
(b) Think of a word your family or friends use that outsiders would not know. Which design feature does that word show best, and why?

Misconception check. Students often think "language" and "communication" are two names for the same thing. That is tempting, because in everyday talk people say "body language" or "the language of flowers". But a buzz, a bark, or a raised eyebrow passes information without arbitrary words, without new sentences, and often without any way to talk about yesterday. The cure: communication is the big category, and language is one special kind inside it, marked by its design features.

2. Hear the field words: emic terms as language

Last week you marked the insider words in the vendor's interview. This week you listen to them again, as a linguist would. The words are small, but they carry the market's shared world.

Here is the course's illustrative interview excerpt (Dataset F, illustrative, constructed for this course, not a real person), summed up in its five questions and five answers.

The illustrative vendor interview (Dataset F): five questions, the vendor's answers, and the emic term in each answer
Question	The vendor's answer, in brief	Emic term
The best part of a market morning	Seeing the "regulars", whose order the vendor knows before they ask	"regulars"
What happens to bruised tomatoes	They go in the "seconds" bin at half price, and someone always wants them for sauce	"seconds"
Trading with other vendors	The vendor and the bread vendor do "the swap" on most market days, peaches for loaves, even, no money	"the swap"
When selling starts	Not until "the bell"; selling before it gets people talking	"the bell"
How the work has changed	The vendor's back hurts after "Twenty years of crates"	none

Worked example — counting the emic terms. Read the table row by row.

Count the answers. The illustrative interview has 5 questions and 5 answers.
Count the answers with an emic term. 4 of the 5 answers carry an emic term in quotation marks.
Turn it into a share. Divide: 4 ÷ 5 = 0.8. Multiply by 100: 0.8 × 100 = 80. So 80 percent of the answers carry an emic term.
Check the last row. The fifth answer, about the vendor's back, carries none.

In words: 4 of the vendor's 5 answers, or 80 percent, use an insider word, which tells you how much of the market's daily life is packed into its own vocabulary.

Here are the four emic terms with their glosses, exactly as the course uses them:

"regulars" — buyers a vendor knows by sight and greets by their usual order;
"seconds" — bruised or misshapen produce sold at a lower price;
"the swap" — a vendor-to-vendor trade of goods of matched value, with no money;
"the bell" — the manager's 8:00 a.m. signal that selling may begin.

Now watch the design features at work in these words.

Worked example — "seconds" and its price. Field-note entry 5, 8:35 a.m., produce stall, records a bin of bruised tomatoes marked "Seconds — 2 dollars a pound", half the price of the display tomatoes.

Arbitrariness. Nothing about the sound of "seconds" means bruised. A different market could call the same bin "the sauce pile". The meaning is set by convention among the vendors.
The price behind the word. Half the display price is 2 dollars a pound. Double it to find the full price: 2 × 2 = 4 dollars a pound.
The saving. Subtract: 4 − 2 = 2 dollars. A pound of seconds saves the buyer 2 dollars.
Compare the two prices. The display tomatoes at 4 dollars a pound versus the seconds at 2 dollars a pound is a 2-fold difference, which is what "half price" means.

In words: "seconds" is an arbitrary word whose meaning, bruised tomatoes at half the 4-dollar display price, is something a buyer has to learn.

Worked example — the other features in the excerpt. Read three more of the vendor's lines.

Displacement. The vendor's answer "Twenty years of crates" talks about years that are not here and not now. A bark cannot do that.
Productivity. "Those go in the 'seconds' bin" may be a sentence the interviewer has never heard before, yet it is understood at once.
Traditional transmission. A new vendor learns "the swap" from other vendors, not from their genes. It is passed on by living and working among them.

In words: the vendor's ordinary answers show arbitrariness, displacement, productivity, and traditional transmission in a few short lines.

One honesty note: an emic term is not mere slang to be translated away. It marks a category that matters to the people who use it. Writing it in quotation marks with a gloss, as the course does, keeps the insider's word and makes it readable to everyone else.

Misconception check. Students often think a word fits its meaning naturally, so "seconds" must have been the natural name for bruised produce. That is tempting, because words we grew up with feel like they belong to their things. But a newcomer to the market cannot guess what "seconds" means; someone has to teach it. The cure is arbitrariness: the link between a word and its meaning is a learned agreement, which is why every emic term needs a gloss.

3. Shift your style: dialect, register, and code-switching

Think about how you talk in a job interview, and then how you text a close friend afterward. In the interview you might say, "I would be glad to take on more responsibility." In the text you might send three letters and an emoji. Both are you, in one language, on one afternoon.

Anthropologists name several kinds of variety inside a language. A dialect is a regional or social variety of a language; every dialect follows its own rules, so a nonstandard dialect is not broken or lazy language. A register is the style of speaking or writing a speaker shifts into for a particular setting or listener, such as a job interview or a text to a friend.

The difference: a dialect is tied to who you are and where you grew up, and a register is tied to where you are and who is listening. One person usually has one home dialect and many registers.

Worked example — the vendor's two registers. Set two moments at the produce stall side by side (Dataset A, illustrative, constructed for this course, not a real place).

With a regular. Field-note entry 4, 8:20 a.m., produce stall, records a vendor who greets a shopper with "The usual?", a greeting of 2 words, and bags two pounds of apples before the shopper asks.
With a first-time buyer. In an illustrative contrast, the same vendor shifts into a fuller register, naming the produce, explaining that seconds are bruised tomatoes at half price, and saying the price out loud.
What changed. The shorthand that works with a regular gives way to the gloss a newcomer needs. The vendor speaks the same language to both.

In words: the vendor's shift from "The usual?" to a full explanation is a change of register, not a change of language.

Now the dialect idea. Picture two towns (illustrative) where people speak the same language but say some words differently and use a few different words for everyday things. A visitor from one town might call the other town's speech "wrong". Linguists find the opposite: each variety has regular patterns of sound, words, and sentences that its speakers follow without thinking. Calling a dialect "lazy" judges it by another dialect's rules, which is the ethnocentrism you met in Week 2, applied to speech.

Speakers also move between varieties inside one conversation. Code-switching is moving between two languages, or between two varieties of one language, within a single conversation.

Worked example — a bilingual family at dinner (illustrative). A family speaks two languages at home.

The setting. At dinner, the parents and teenagers talk about school in one language.
The switch. When a grandparent joins the table, everyone moves into the grandparent's first language. A joke later in the meal comes out in the first language again, because it is funnier that way.
The reading. The switches follow the listener and the topic. They are a skill, not a slip.

In words: code-switching moves between languages or varieties inside one conversation, and speakers do it to fit the listener, the topic, and the mood.

Pause and think. Choose one option and answer it in two or three sentences:

(a) Describe one register you use at work, in class, or with family, and one you use with close friends. What changes between them: the words, the length, the tone, or all three?
(b) Think of a time you heard someone switch between two languages or two ways of speaking in one conversation. What seemed to prompt the switch?

Misconception check. Students often think a nonstandard dialect is broken or lazy language, a failed attempt at the "correct" version. That is tempting, because schools and job ads often reward one variety. But every dialect is rule-governed: its speakers follow regular patterns, and a fluent speaker can tell when a sentence breaks them. The "standard" is one variety that gained prestige, not the only one with rules. A caveat worth keeping: choosing a register for a setting is a real skill, and it is different from ranking whole dialects.

4. Weigh the debate: linguistic relativity

Here is an old and lively question. If your language has a word for something, do you notice that thing more? And if your language lacks a word, can you still think about it?

The idea has a name. Linguistic relativity is the idea, associated with Sapir and Whorf, that the language a person speaks shapes their thought; anthropologists debate how large the effect is. Whorf's essays were collected and published after his death. The course names Sapir and Whorf in words and keys no year for them.

The debate has two forms, and the size of the effect is the whole argument.

The strong form of linguistic relativity is the claim that language determines thought, so speakers cannot perceive or think what their language has no word for; the evidence does not support it.
The weak form of linguistic relativity is the claim that language influences habits of attention, sorting, and memory without fixing what a speaker can think; it has limited support.

Here is the case each side can make at full strength.

The case for a real effect. Words are tools for sorting the world, and people practice the sorts their language makes. A speaker who uses a term every day may notice its category faster and remember it better. That is the weak form, and it has limited support.
The case for a small effect. People can learn new words, borrow them, and describe anything with a longer phrase. If language set the limits of thought, translation and learning a second language would be impossible, and they are not. That is why the strong form is not supported.

Worked example — trying both forms on "seconds". Use the market's word.

The weak form. The word "seconds" may help a vendor sort bruised tomatoes fast, a habit of attention. The vendor has a ready category and a bin for it.
The strong form. A first-time buyer who lacks the word still sees the bruises. The word does not decide what anyone can perceive.
The verdict on each form. The weak form fits this case and has limited support in general; the strong form fails this case and is not supported.

In words: having the word "seconds" may make a vendor quicker to sort, but it does not stop anyone else from seeing a bruise, which is the difference between influence and control.

Pause and think. Choose one option and answer it in two or three sentences:

(a) Name a word from a hobby, sport, or job you know that helps you notice something other people miss. Is that the weak form at work, and why?
(b) Think of something you could describe even though you lack a single word for it. What does that example say about the strong form?

Misconception check. Students often think linguistic relativity means language determines thought, so people "cannot think" what their language has no word for. That is tempting, because it makes a dramatic story. But that is the strong form, and it is not supported: people learn new words and describe new things all the time. The cure is to ask how large the effect is. The weak form, an influence on attention and memory, has limited support; the strong form does not.

5. Read the unspoken: nonverbal communication and proxemics

Stand in a short coffee-shop line (an illustrative scene). Most people leave a gap between themselves and the person in front. If someone steps right up behind you, you notice at once, though nobody said a word. Now picture a packed stadium crowd chanting for its team, where strangers stand shoulder to shoulder and nobody minds.

Both scenes are messages without words. Nonverbal communication is messages sent without words, through gesture, facial expression, posture, and the use of space; their meanings are learned and differ across cultures. One part of it has its own name. Proxemics is the cultural use of personal space, such as how close people stand when they talk or wait; Hall named it in 1966. The source is Hall (1966), The Hidden Dimension.

Worked example — two settings, two space rules (illustrative). Compare the coffee-shop line and the stadium.

What was observed. In the line, people leave a gap. In the stadium, people stand pressed together.
What it might mean. The gap in the line may signal respect for a stranger's space. The closeness in the stadium may be read as shared excitement, not as rudeness.
The concept. Proxemics says the right distance is set by learned expectations for each setting, not by a fixed rule of nature.
The comparison. The same people may keep both rules on the same day, which shows that space norms belong to settings as well as to groups.

In words: proxemics shows that how close is "too close" is a learned expectation that changes with the setting.

The same reasoning applies at the market. When a stall is crowded, shoppers stand closer together than they would at an empty stall, and a vendor's nod can mean "you're next" without a word. Read those moments the way you read a field note: what was observed in one column, what it might mean in the other.

Gestures work the same way. A hand movement that means "come here" or "all good" in one community can mean something else, or nothing, in another. A careful fieldworker records the movement first and asks what it means before assuming.

Pause and think. Choose one option and answer it in two or three sentences:

(a) Describe one setting where you expect people to stand close and one where you expect a gap. What happens when someone breaks the expectation?
(b) Describe a gesture you use often. How would you explain its meaning to someone who has never seen it?

Misconception check. Students often think gestures are universal, so a wave, a nod, or a thumbs-up means the same thing everywhere. That is tempting, because gestures feel natural, like part of the body. But gestures are learned, like words, and the same movement can carry different meanings in different communities. The cure is the field-note habit: record the movement, then ask what it means to the people using it.

6. Notice languages change: language change and endangerment

Read a page your grandparents wrote as teenagers, or a novel from a century ago, and some words will look odd. Read your own messages from five years back and some slang will already feel dated. Every language changes as its speakers live.

Change is normal. Loss is a different matter. Language endangerment is the situation of a language whose speakers are few or are shifting to another language, so that it may stop being spoken. About seven thousand languages are spoken today. Counts differ by source, so the course says the figure in words and never treats it as exact. One United Nations news account, written for the International Decade of Indigenous Languages, gives a somewhat lower count and warns that more than half may disappear by the end of the century.

Many languages have few remaining speakers, and communities are working to revitalize them. Language revitalization is a community's work to bring a language back into everyday use, for example by teaching it to children and new speakers.

Worked example — reading a language change (illustrative). A neighborhood's older residents and teenagers use different words for the same thing.

What was observed. The teenagers use a newer word; the older residents use an older one.
What it might mean. The language is changing as a new generation takes it up, the way every living language does.
The concept. Change inside a language is not decay; both groups follow rules.
The contrast with endangerment. Endangerment is different: it happens when fewer and fewer people speak a language at all, often because they shift to another one.

In words: a language that changes is alive, while a language that loses its speakers is endangered, and revitalization is a community's answer to that loss.

Why does this matter to an anthropologist? A language holds a community's words for its own world, the way "seconds" and "the swap" hold the market's. When a language stops being spoken, a set of emic terms goes with it. That is why many communities treat their language as part of who they are, and why revitalization work matters to them.

Pause and think. Choose one option and answer it in two or three sentences:

(a) Name a word or phrase that has changed meaning in your lifetime. Is that change decay, or a sign of a living language? Explain.
(b) If a language spoken in your family or community had only a few speakers left, what would be lost along with it, beyond the words?

Misconception check. Students often think the number of the world's languages is one exact, settled figure. That is tempting, because a single number looks like a fact. But counts differ by source, and a United Nations news account gives a lower count than the usual round figure. One limitation of any single count is that it hides how the sources disagree. The cure: say "about seven thousand" in words, and never treat it as exact.

Key terms

Communication — Any passing of information from one living thing to another, by sound, sight, touch, or smell; many animals communicate without using language. (first used: 1. Tell language from communication)
Language — A symbolic system of learned words and rules that lets people say and understand an unlimited number of new things, including things not present; it is one kind of communication, not a synonym for it. (first used: 1. Tell language from communication)
Design features — The features Hockett named in 1960 that set human language apart from other animal communication, such as arbitrariness, displacement, productivity, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning. (first used: 1. Tell language from communication)
Arbitrariness — The design feature by which there is no natural link between a word and its meaning, so the meaning is set by the convention of the people who use the word. (first used: 1. Tell language from communication)
Displacement — The design feature that lets speakers talk about things that are not here and not now, such as past years, distant places, or plans. (first used: 1. Tell language from communication)
Productivity — The design feature that lets speakers make and understand sentences they have never heard before. (first used: 1. Tell language from communication)
Traditional transmission — The design feature, often called cultural transmission, by which a language is learned from other speakers rather than inherited biologically. (first used: 1. Tell language from communication)
Duality of patterning — The design feature by which a small set of sounds that mean nothing on their own are combined into a very large number of meaningful words. (first used: 1. Tell language from communication)
Dialect — A regional or social variety of a language; every dialect follows its own rules, so a nonstandard dialect is not broken or lazy language. (first used: 3. Shift your style: dialect, register, and code-switching)
Register — The style of speaking or writing a speaker shifts into for a particular setting or listener, such as a job interview or a text to a friend. (first used: 3. Shift your style: dialect, register, and code-switching)
Code-switching — Moving between two languages, or between two varieties of one language, within a single conversation. (first used: 3. Shift your style: dialect, register, and code-switching)
Linguistic relativity — The idea, associated with Sapir and Whorf, that the language a person speaks shapes their thought; anthropologists debate how large the effect is. (first used: 4. Weigh the debate: linguistic relativity)
Strong form of linguistic relativity — The claim that language determines thought, so speakers cannot perceive or think what their language has no word for; the evidence does not support it. (first used: 4. Weigh the debate: linguistic relativity)
Weak form of linguistic relativity — The claim that language influences habits of attention, sorting, and memory without fixing what a speaker can think; it has limited support. (first used: 4. Weigh the debate: linguistic relativity)
Nonverbal communication — Messages sent without words, through gesture, facial expression, posture, and the use of space; their meanings are learned and differ across cultures. (first used: 5. Read the unspoken: nonverbal communication and proxemics)
Proxemics — The cultural use of personal space, such as how close people stand when they talk or wait; Hall named it in 1966. (first used: 5. Read the unspoken: nonverbal communication and proxemics)
Language endangerment — The situation of a language whose speakers are few or are shifting to another language, so that it may stop being spoken. (first used: 6. Notice languages change: language change and endangerment)
Language revitalization — A community's work to bring a language back into everyday use, for example by teaching it to children and new speakers. (first used: 6. Notice languages change: language change and endangerment)

Summary

Communication is any passing of information; language is one special kind of it.
Hockett's 1960 design features include arbitrariness, displacement, productivity, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning.
Emic terms like "seconds" are arbitrary, learned words that a newcomer must be taught.
A dialect is a variety of a language; a register is a style for a setting.
Every dialect follows rules, so a nonstandard dialect is not broken language.
Code-switching moves between languages or varieties inside one conversation.
The strong form of linguistic relativity is not supported; the weak form has limited support.
Proxemics, named by Hall in 1966, is the cultural use of personal space; gestures are not universal.
About seven thousand languages are spoken today, said in words; many are endangered, and communities work to revitalize them.

Check your understanding

Work these before looking at the answers — they are ungraded, and the answers (with reasoning) are at the bottom of the page.

A hiking club's group chat (an illustrative example) has 10 messages from one evening, and 7 of them use the club's own abbreviation for the trailhead parking lot. What share of the messages use the abbreviation, and which design feature does a newcomer's confusion about it show?
A bakery counter (an illustrative example) sells day-old bread, which its staff call "yesterdays", at 3 dollars a loaf, one third of the fresh price. What is the fresh price, how much does a buyer save on one loaf, and what kind of term is "yesterdays"?
A student says, "My cousin speaks a lazy dialect; she drops words all the time." Using this week's concepts, explain what is wrong with that claim.
A classmate argues, "People who have no single word for a color cannot see that color." Which form of linguistic relativity is this, and what is the evidence against it?

Answers (worked reasoning — read after attempting)

Divide the messages that use the abbreviation by all the messages: 7 ÷ 10 = 0.7. Multiply by 100: 0.7 × 100 = 70, so 70 percent of the messages use it. A newcomer cannot guess its meaning from its letters, which shows arbitrariness: the meaning was set by the club's own agreement and has to be learned.
One third of the fresh price is 3 dollars, so the fresh price is 3 × 3 = 9 dollars a loaf. The saving is 9 − 3 = 6 dollars a loaf. "Yesterdays" is an emic term, the staff's own word, and a newcomer would need its gloss: day-old bread sold at a lower price. Notice that this is a fresh bakery, not the market's numbers.
Every dialect is rule-governed, so "lazy" is a judgment, not a description. The words the cousin "drops" may follow a regular pattern that her dialect's speakers share. Calling it lazy judges one variety by another variety's rules, which is ethnocentrism applied to speech.
That is the strong form, which says language determines thought. It is not supported: people can see and describe a color with a longer phrase, can learn a new word for it, and can translate between languages. The weak form, that words may make people quicker to notice or sort a color, has limited support, and it is a different claim.

Next up in this module: the Readings & Resources page, the lecture tutorial, the practice set, and the quiz — and next week, Making a Living introduces the subsistence model of how people feed themselves.

Built with The Course Maker · samples.thecoursemaker.com